Subspecialities Of PSYCHIATRY
Various subspecialties and/or theoretical approaches exist which are related to the field of psychiatry. They include the following:
Biological psychiatry; an approach to psychiatry that aims to understand mental disorder in terms of the biological function of the nervous system.
Child and adolescent psychiatry; a branch of psychiatry that specialises in work with children, teenagers, and their families.
Cross-cultural psychiatry; a branch of psychiatry concerned with the cultural and ethnic context of mental disorder and psychiatric services.
Emergency psychiatry; the clinical application of psychiatry in emergency settings.
Forensic psychiatry; the interface between law and psychiatry.
Geriatric psychiatry; a branch of psychiatry dealing with the study, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders in humans with old age.
Liaison psychiatry; the branch of psychiatry that specializes in the interface between other medical specialties and psychiatry.
Military psychiatry; covers special aspects of psychiatry and mental disorders within the military context.
Neuropsychiatry; branch of medicine dealing with mental disorders attributable to diseases of the nervous system.
Social psychiatry; a branch of psychiatry that focuses on the interpersonal and cultural context of mental disorder and mental wellbeing.
05 February 2010
HISTORY OF PSYCHIATRY-1
Physicians in Ancient Greece sought to explain and treat mental disturbance, notably melancholy and hysteria, but medieval thought focused on the concept of demonic possession or supernatural spirits. The first hospital wards for the mentally disturbed opened from the 8th century in the Middle East, notably at Baghdad Hospital under Rhazes, with the first dedicated asylums opening from the 15th Century in Egypt, Spain and then the rest of Europe, notoriously at Bedlam in England.
In the 16th century, Johann Weyer famously argued that some cases of alleged witchcraft were actually mental illness, as others had argued before him. Different categories of mental illness became systematically considered by physicians in the context of neurology, a term coined in the 17th century from the work of Thomas Willis. In 1758, William Battie gave impetus to the study and treatment of mental disturbance as a medical speciality. From the late 18th Century, the moral treatment movement sought to make asylums more humane and therapeutic as well as custodial, an approach developed partly from the work of physicians, notably Philippe Pinel, who also developed new ways of categorizing mental disorders.
Psychiatry developed as a clinical and academic profession in the early 19th Century, particularly in Germany. The field sought to systematically apply concepts and tools from general medicine and neurology to the study and treatment of abnormal mental distress and disorder. The term psychiatry was coined in 1808 by Johann Christian Reil, from the Greek “psyche” (soul) and “iatros” (doctor). Official teaching first began in Leipzig in 1811, with the first psychiatric department established in Berlin in 1865. Benjamin Rush pioneered the approach in the United States. The American Psychiatric Association was founded in 1844. Psychiatric nursing developed as a profession.
Early in the 20th Century, neurologist Sigmund Freud developed the field of psychoanalysis and Carl Jung popularized related ideas. Meanwhile Emil Kraepelin developed the foundations of the modern psychiatric classification and diagnosis of mental illnesses. Others who notably developed this approach included Karl Jaspers, Eugen Bleuler, Kurt Schneider and Karl Leonhard. Adolf Meyer was an influential figure in the first half of the twentieth century, combining biological and psychological approaches. Women were admitted as members of the profession and as patients, too
Psychiatry was used by some totalitarian regimes as part of a system to enforce political control, for example in Nazi Germany [4], the Soviet Union under Psikhushka, and the apartheid system in South Africa [5]. For many years during the mid-20th century, Freudian and neo-Freudian thinking dominated psychiatric thinking. Social Psychiatry developed.
From the 1930s, a number of treatment practices came in to widespread use in psychiatry, including inducing seizures (by ECT, insulin or other drugs) or cutting connections between parts of the brain (leucotomy or lobotomy). In the 1950s and 1960s, lithium carbonate, chlorpromazine and other typical antipsychotics and early antidepressant and anxiolytic medications were discovered, and psychiatric medication came in to widespread use by psychiatrists and general physicians.
Coming to the fore in the 1960s, the field attracted an anti-psychiatry movement challenging its theoretical, clinical and legal legitimacy. Psychiatrists notably associated with critical challenges to mainstream psychiatry included R.D. Laing and Thomas Szasz.
Along with the development of fields such as genetics and tools such as neuroimaging, psychiatry moved away from psychoanalysis back to a focus on physical medicine and neurology[6] and to search for the causes of mental illnesses within the genome and the neurochemistry of the brain. Social psychiatry became marginalised relative to biopsychiatry. “Neo-Kraepelinian” categories were codified in diagnostic manuals, notably the ICD and DSM, which became widely adopted. Robert Spitzer was notable in this development. Psychiatry became more closely linked to pharmaceutical companies. New drugs came in to common use, notably SSRI antidepressants and atypical antipsychotics.
Psychiatry was involved in the development of psychotherapies. Neo-Freudian ideas continued, but there was a trend away from long-term psychoanalysis to more cost-effective or evidence-based approaches, particularly cognitive therapy from the work of Aaron Beck. Other mental health professions, particularly clinical psychology, were becoming more established and competing with or working with psychiatry.
During the last third the 20th century, the institutional confinement of people diagnosed with mental illness steadily declined, particularly in more developed countries. Among the reasons for this trend of deinstitutionalization were pressure for more humane care and greater social inclusion, advances in psychopharmacology, increases in public financial assistance for people with disabilities, and the Consumer/Survivor Movement. Developments in community services followed, for example psychiatric rehabilitation and Assertive Community Treatment.
It has been argued that different methods of historical analysis, for example focusing on individual/technical achievements or focusing on social factors and social constructs, can lead to different histories of psychiatry
In the 16th century, Johann Weyer famously argued that some cases of alleged witchcraft were actually mental illness, as others had argued before him. Different categories of mental illness became systematically considered by physicians in the context of neurology, a term coined in the 17th century from the work of Thomas Willis. In 1758, William Battie gave impetus to the study and treatment of mental disturbance as a medical speciality. From the late 18th Century, the moral treatment movement sought to make asylums more humane and therapeutic as well as custodial, an approach developed partly from the work of physicians, notably Philippe Pinel, who also developed new ways of categorizing mental disorders.
Psychiatry developed as a clinical and academic profession in the early 19th Century, particularly in Germany. The field sought to systematically apply concepts and tools from general medicine and neurology to the study and treatment of abnormal mental distress and disorder. The term psychiatry was coined in 1808 by Johann Christian Reil, from the Greek “psyche” (soul) and “iatros” (doctor). Official teaching first began in Leipzig in 1811, with the first psychiatric department established in Berlin in 1865. Benjamin Rush pioneered the approach in the United States. The American Psychiatric Association was founded in 1844. Psychiatric nursing developed as a profession.
Early in the 20th Century, neurologist Sigmund Freud developed the field of psychoanalysis and Carl Jung popularized related ideas. Meanwhile Emil Kraepelin developed the foundations of the modern psychiatric classification and diagnosis of mental illnesses. Others who notably developed this approach included Karl Jaspers, Eugen Bleuler, Kurt Schneider and Karl Leonhard. Adolf Meyer was an influential figure in the first half of the twentieth century, combining biological and psychological approaches. Women were admitted as members of the profession and as patients, too
Psychiatry was used by some totalitarian regimes as part of a system to enforce political control, for example in Nazi Germany [4], the Soviet Union under Psikhushka, and the apartheid system in South Africa [5]. For many years during the mid-20th century, Freudian and neo-Freudian thinking dominated psychiatric thinking. Social Psychiatry developed.
From the 1930s, a number of treatment practices came in to widespread use in psychiatry, including inducing seizures (by ECT, insulin or other drugs) or cutting connections between parts of the brain (leucotomy or lobotomy). In the 1950s and 1960s, lithium carbonate, chlorpromazine and other typical antipsychotics and early antidepressant and anxiolytic medications were discovered, and psychiatric medication came in to widespread use by psychiatrists and general physicians.
Coming to the fore in the 1960s, the field attracted an anti-psychiatry movement challenging its theoretical, clinical and legal legitimacy. Psychiatrists notably associated with critical challenges to mainstream psychiatry included R.D. Laing and Thomas Szasz.
Along with the development of fields such as genetics and tools such as neuroimaging, psychiatry moved away from psychoanalysis back to a focus on physical medicine and neurology[6] and to search for the causes of mental illnesses within the genome and the neurochemistry of the brain. Social psychiatry became marginalised relative to biopsychiatry. “Neo-Kraepelinian” categories were codified in diagnostic manuals, notably the ICD and DSM, which became widely adopted. Robert Spitzer was notable in this development. Psychiatry became more closely linked to pharmaceutical companies. New drugs came in to common use, notably SSRI antidepressants and atypical antipsychotics.
Psychiatry was involved in the development of psychotherapies. Neo-Freudian ideas continued, but there was a trend away from long-term psychoanalysis to more cost-effective or evidence-based approaches, particularly cognitive therapy from the work of Aaron Beck. Other mental health professions, particularly clinical psychology, were becoming more established and competing with or working with psychiatry.
During the last third the 20th century, the institutional confinement of people diagnosed with mental illness steadily declined, particularly in more developed countries. Among the reasons for this trend of deinstitutionalization were pressure for more humane care and greater social inclusion, advances in psychopharmacology, increases in public financial assistance for people with disabilities, and the Consumer/Survivor Movement. Developments in community services followed, for example psychiatric rehabilitation and Assertive Community Treatment.
It has been argued that different methods of historical analysis, for example focusing on individual/technical achievements or focusing on social factors and social constructs, can lead to different histories of psychiatry
02 February 2010
ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY
ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY=
NOWADAYS PSYCHIATRIC PROBLEM IN ADOLESCENT IS INCREASING
MOSTLY THEY ARE SUFFERING FROM HEADACHE,ANXIETY,DEPRESSION,IRRITABILITY AND ACADEMIC PROBLEMS.
REASON BEHIND PSYCHIATRIC PROBLEM IS MOSTLY STUDY RELATED STRESS=BURDEN OF STUDY,
PRESSURE OF EXAM,
COMPETITION,
PARENTS HIGHER EXPECTATION,
MULTI-MEDIA(T.V.,INTERNET,CELL PHONE,VIDEO GAMES)
WRONG STUDY METHOD
WHAT IS OUR ROLE TO PREVENT THIS?
TEACHER,STUDENT AND PARENTS ARE LIKE A ONE CHAIN
IF ANY PART OF CHAIN IS WEAK THAN IT'S STRENGTH LOSS
SO ALL THREE SHOULD HAVE TO DO THEIR BEST
NEVER BLAME EACH OTHER
IF THIS SYSTEM IS WORKING TOGATHER THAN NO STUDENT HAS REQUIRE PSYCHIATRIC HELP
MOST IMPORTANT THING IS TO HELP STUDENT,NOT FORCE HIM,NEVER EXPECT HIGHER GOAL OUT OH HIS STEMINA
BETTER WAY IS TO UNDERSTAND STUDENT'S STEMINA AND THAN TEACH HIM ACCORDING TO HIS MEMORY,RECALL CAPACITY,UNDERSTANDING AND CAPACITY
IF STILL PROBLEM IS PERSIST THAN YOU SHOULD TAKE ADVICE OF PSYCHIATRIST.
NOWADAYS PSYCHIATRIC PROBLEM IN ADOLESCENT IS INCREASING
MOSTLY THEY ARE SUFFERING FROM HEADACHE,ANXIETY,DEPRESSION,IRRITABILITY AND ACADEMIC PROBLEMS.
REASON BEHIND PSYCHIATRIC PROBLEM IS MOSTLY STUDY RELATED STRESS=BURDEN OF STUDY,
PRESSURE OF EXAM,
COMPETITION,
PARENTS HIGHER EXPECTATION,
MULTI-MEDIA(T.V.,INTERNET,CELL PHONE,VIDEO GAMES)
WRONG STUDY METHOD
WHAT IS OUR ROLE TO PREVENT THIS?
TEACHER,STUDENT AND PARENTS ARE LIKE A ONE CHAIN
IF ANY PART OF CHAIN IS WEAK THAN IT'S STRENGTH LOSS
SO ALL THREE SHOULD HAVE TO DO THEIR BEST
NEVER BLAME EACH OTHER
IF THIS SYSTEM IS WORKING TOGATHER THAN NO STUDENT HAS REQUIRE PSYCHIATRIC HELP
MOST IMPORTANT THING IS TO HELP STUDENT,NOT FORCE HIM,NEVER EXPECT HIGHER GOAL OUT OH HIS STEMINA
BETTER WAY IS TO UNDERSTAND STUDENT'S STEMINA AND THAN TEACH HIM ACCORDING TO HIS MEMORY,RECALL CAPACITY,UNDERSTANDING AND CAPACITY
IF STILL PROBLEM IS PERSIST THAN YOU SHOULD TAKE ADVICE OF PSYCHIATRIST.
OCD
Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts that produce anxiety, by repetitive behaviors aimed at reducing anxiety, or by combinations of such thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions).
The symptoms of this anxiety disorder range from repetitive hand-washing and extensive hoarding to preoccupation with sexual, religious, or aggressive impulses. These symptoms can be alienating and time-consuming, and often cause severe emotional and economic loss.
Although the acts of those who have OCD may appear paranoid and come across to others as psychotic, OCD sufferers often recognize their thoughts and subsequent actions as irrational, and they may become further distressed by this realization.
OCD is the fourth most common mental disorder and is diagnosed nearly as often as asthma and diabetes mellitus.
In the United States, one in 50 adults has OCD.The phrase "obsessive–compulsive" has become part of the English lexicon, and is often used in an informal or caricatured manner to describe someone who is meticulous, perfectionistic, absorbed in a cause, or otherwise fixated on something or someone.
Although these signs may be present in OCD, a person who exhibits them does not necessarily have OCD, and may instead have obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), an autism spectrum disorder or some other condition.
The symptoms of OCD can range from difficulty with odd numbers to nervous habits such as opening a door and closing it a certain number of times before one leaves it either open or shut.
The symptoms of this anxiety disorder range from repetitive hand-washing and extensive hoarding to preoccupation with sexual, religious, or aggressive impulses. These symptoms can be alienating and time-consuming, and often cause severe emotional and economic loss.
Although the acts of those who have OCD may appear paranoid and come across to others as psychotic, OCD sufferers often recognize their thoughts and subsequent actions as irrational, and they may become further distressed by this realization.
OCD is the fourth most common mental disorder and is diagnosed nearly as often as asthma and diabetes mellitus.
In the United States, one in 50 adults has OCD.The phrase "obsessive–compulsive" has become part of the English lexicon, and is often used in an informal or caricatured manner to describe someone who is meticulous, perfectionistic, absorbed in a cause, or otherwise fixated on something or someone.
Although these signs may be present in OCD, a person who exhibits them does not necessarily have OCD, and may instead have obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), an autism spectrum disorder or some other condition.
The symptoms of OCD can range from difficulty with odd numbers to nervous habits such as opening a door and closing it a certain number of times before one leaves it either open or shut.
BIPOLAR MOOD DISORDER
Bipolar disorder or manic–depressive disorder (also referred to a bipolarism or manic depression) is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood clinically referred to as mania or, if milder, hypomania.
Individuals who experience manic episodes also commonly experience depressive episodes or symptoms, or mixed episodes in which features of both mania and depression are present at the same time.
These episodes are usually separated by periods of "normal" mood, but in some individuals, depression and mania may rapidly alternate, known as rapid cycling.
Extreme manic episodes can sometimes lead to psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. The disorder has been subdivided into bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia, and other types, based on the nature and severity of mood episodes experienced; the range is often described as the bipolar spectrum.
Data from the United States on lifetime prevalence varies, but indicates a rate of around 1% for Bipolar I, 0.5–1% for Bipolar II or cyclothymia, and 2–5% for subthreshold cases meeting some, but not all, criteria.
The onset of full symptoms generally occurs in late adolescence or young adulthood. Diagnosis is based on the person's self-reported experiences, as well as observed behavior.
Episodes of abnormality are associated with distress and disruption, and an elevated risk of suicide, especially during depressive episodes. In some cases it can be a devastating long-lasting disorder; in others it has also been associated with creativity, goal striving and positive achievements.
Genetic factors contribute substantially to the likelihood of developing bipolar disorder, and environmental factors are also implicated. Bipolar disorder is often treated with mood stabilizer medications, and sometimes other psychiatric drugs.
Psychotherapy also has a role, often when there has been some recovery of stability. In serious cases in which there is a risk of harm to oneself or others involuntary commitment may be used; these cases generally involve severe manic episodes with dangerous behavior or depressive episodes with suicidal ideation.
There are widespread problems with social stigma, stereotypes and prejudice against individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder.People with bipolar disorder exhibiting psychotic symptoms can sometimes be misdiagnosed as having schizophrenia, another serious mental illness.
The current term "bipolar disorder" is of fairly recent origin and refers to the cycling between high and low episodes (poles). A relationship between mania and melancholia had long been observed, although the basis of the current conceptualisation can be traced back to French psychiatrists in the 1850s.
The term "manic-depressive illness" or psychosis was coined by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin in the late nineteenth century, originally referring to all kinds of mood disorder. German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard split the classification again in 1957, employing the terms unipolar disorder (major depressive disorder) and bipolar disorder.
WHAT DO U THINK ABOUT BIPOLAR DISORDER?
Individuals who experience manic episodes also commonly experience depressive episodes or symptoms, or mixed episodes in which features of both mania and depression are present at the same time.
These episodes are usually separated by periods of "normal" mood, but in some individuals, depression and mania may rapidly alternate, known as rapid cycling.
Extreme manic episodes can sometimes lead to psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. The disorder has been subdivided into bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia, and other types, based on the nature and severity of mood episodes experienced; the range is often described as the bipolar spectrum.
Data from the United States on lifetime prevalence varies, but indicates a rate of around 1% for Bipolar I, 0.5–1% for Bipolar II or cyclothymia, and 2–5% for subthreshold cases meeting some, but not all, criteria.
The onset of full symptoms generally occurs in late adolescence or young adulthood. Diagnosis is based on the person's self-reported experiences, as well as observed behavior.
Episodes of abnormality are associated with distress and disruption, and an elevated risk of suicide, especially during depressive episodes. In some cases it can be a devastating long-lasting disorder; in others it has also been associated with creativity, goal striving and positive achievements.
Genetic factors contribute substantially to the likelihood of developing bipolar disorder, and environmental factors are also implicated. Bipolar disorder is often treated with mood stabilizer medications, and sometimes other psychiatric drugs.
Psychotherapy also has a role, often when there has been some recovery of stability. In serious cases in which there is a risk of harm to oneself or others involuntary commitment may be used; these cases generally involve severe manic episodes with dangerous behavior or depressive episodes with suicidal ideation.
There are widespread problems with social stigma, stereotypes and prejudice against individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder.People with bipolar disorder exhibiting psychotic symptoms can sometimes be misdiagnosed as having schizophrenia, another serious mental illness.
The current term "bipolar disorder" is of fairly recent origin and refers to the cycling between high and low episodes (poles). A relationship between mania and melancholia had long been observed, although the basis of the current conceptualisation can be traced back to French psychiatrists in the 1850s.
The term "manic-depressive illness" or psychosis was coined by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin in the late nineteenth century, originally referring to all kinds of mood disorder. German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard split the classification again in 1957, employing the terms unipolar disorder (major depressive disorder) and bipolar disorder.
WHAT DO U THINK ABOUT BIPOLAR DISORDER?
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Schizophrenia from the Greek roots skhizein and phrēn is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a neuropsychiatric and mental disorder characterized by abnormalities in the perception or expression of reality.
It most commonly manifests as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking with significant social or occupational dysfunction.
Onset of symptoms typically occurs in young adulthood.
Diagnosis is based on the patient's self-reported experiences and observed behavior. No laboratory test for schizophrenia currently exists.
Studies suggest that genetics, early environment, neurobiology, psychological and social processes are important contributory factors; some recreational and prescription drugs appear to cause or worsen symptoms.
Current psychiatric research is focused on the role of neurobiology, but no single organic cause has been found.
As a result of the many possible combinations of symptoms, there is debate about whether the diagnosis represents a single disorder or a number of discrete syndromes.
Despite its etymology, schizophrenia is not the same as dissociative identity disorder, previously known as multiple personality disorder or split personality, with which it has been erroneously confused.
Increased dopamine activity in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain is consistently found in schizophrenic individuals. The mainstay of treatment is antipsychotic medication; this type of drug primarily works by suppressing dopamine activity. Dosages of antipsychotics are generally lower than in the early decades of their use.
Psychotherapy, and vocational and social rehabilitation are also important.
In more serious cases—where there is risk to self and others—involuntary hospitalization may be necessary, although hospital stays are less frequent and for shorter periods than they were in previous times.
The disorder is thought to mainly affect cognition, but it also usually contributes to chronic problems with behavior and emotion. People with schizophrenia are likely to have additional (comorbid) conditions, including major depression and anxiety disorders;the lifetime occurrence of substance abuse is around 40%. Social problems, such as long-term unemployment, poverty and homelessness, are common. Furthermore, the average life expectancy of people with the disorder is 10 to 12 years less than those without, due to increased physical health problems and a higher suicide rate.
Subtypes=
The DSM-IV-TR contains five sub-classifications of schizophrenia.
Paranoid type: Where delusions and hallucinations are present but thought disorder, disorganized behavior, and affective flattening are absent. (DSM code 295.3/ICD code F20.0)
Disorganized type: Named hebephrenic schizophrenia in the ICD. Where thought disorder and flat affect are present together. (DSM code 295.1/ICD code F20.1)
Catatonic type: The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated, purposeless movement. Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility. (DSM code 295.2/ICD code F20.2)
Undifferentiated type: Psychotic symptoms are present but the criteria for paranoid, disorganized, or catatonic types have not been met. (DSM code 295.9/ICD code F20.3)
Residual type: Where positive symptoms are present at a low intensity only. (DSM code 295.6/ICD code F20.5)
The ICD-10 defines two additional subtypes.
Post-schizophrenic depression: A depressive episode arising in the aftermath of a schizophrenic illness where some low-level schizophrenic symptoms may still be present. (ICD code F20.4)
Simple schizophrenia: Insidious and progressive development of prominent negative symptoms with no history of psychotic episodes. (ICD code F20.6)
It most commonly manifests as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking with significant social or occupational dysfunction.
Onset of symptoms typically occurs in young adulthood.
Diagnosis is based on the patient's self-reported experiences and observed behavior. No laboratory test for schizophrenia currently exists.
Studies suggest that genetics, early environment, neurobiology, psychological and social processes are important contributory factors; some recreational and prescription drugs appear to cause or worsen symptoms.
Current psychiatric research is focused on the role of neurobiology, but no single organic cause has been found.
As a result of the many possible combinations of symptoms, there is debate about whether the diagnosis represents a single disorder or a number of discrete syndromes.
Despite its etymology, schizophrenia is not the same as dissociative identity disorder, previously known as multiple personality disorder or split personality, with which it has been erroneously confused.
Increased dopamine activity in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain is consistently found in schizophrenic individuals. The mainstay of treatment is antipsychotic medication; this type of drug primarily works by suppressing dopamine activity. Dosages of antipsychotics are generally lower than in the early decades of their use.
Psychotherapy, and vocational and social rehabilitation are also important.
In more serious cases—where there is risk to self and others—involuntary hospitalization may be necessary, although hospital stays are less frequent and for shorter periods than they were in previous times.
The disorder is thought to mainly affect cognition, but it also usually contributes to chronic problems with behavior and emotion. People with schizophrenia are likely to have additional (comorbid) conditions, including major depression and anxiety disorders;the lifetime occurrence of substance abuse is around 40%. Social problems, such as long-term unemployment, poverty and homelessness, are common. Furthermore, the average life expectancy of people with the disorder is 10 to 12 years less than those without, due to increased physical health problems and a higher suicide rate.
Subtypes=
The DSM-IV-TR contains five sub-classifications of schizophrenia.
Paranoid type: Where delusions and hallucinations are present but thought disorder, disorganized behavior, and affective flattening are absent. (DSM code 295.3/ICD code F20.0)
Disorganized type: Named hebephrenic schizophrenia in the ICD. Where thought disorder and flat affect are present together. (DSM code 295.1/ICD code F20.1)
Catatonic type: The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated, purposeless movement. Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility. (DSM code 295.2/ICD code F20.2)
Undifferentiated type: Psychotic symptoms are present but the criteria for paranoid, disorganized, or catatonic types have not been met. (DSM code 295.9/ICD code F20.3)
Residual type: Where positive symptoms are present at a low intensity only. (DSM code 295.6/ICD code F20.5)
The ICD-10 defines two additional subtypes.
Post-schizophrenic depression: A depressive episode arising in the aftermath of a schizophrenic illness where some low-level schizophrenic symptoms may still be present. (ICD code F20.4)
Simple schizophrenia: Insidious and progressive development of prominent negative symptoms with no history of psychotic episodes. (ICD code F20.6)
DEPRESSION
Major depressive disorder (also known as clinical depression, major depression, unipolar depression, or unipolar disorder) is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities.
The term "major depressive disorder" was selected by the American Psychiatric Association to designate this symptom cluster as a mood disorder in the 1980 version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) classification, and has become widely used since.
The general term depression is often used to denote the disorder, but as it can also be used in reference to other types of psychological depression, more precise terminology is preferred for the disorder in clinical and research use.
Major depression is a disabling condition which adversely affects a person's family, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health.
The diagnosis of major depressive disorder is based on the patient's self-reported experiences, behavior reported by relatives or friends, and a mental status exam.
There is no laboratory test for major depression, although physicians generally request tests for physical conditions that may cause similar symptoms.
The most common time of onset is between the ages of 30 and 40 years, with a later peak between 50 and 60 years. Major depression is reported about twice as frequently in women as in men, and women attempt suicide more often, although men are at higher risk for completing suicide.
Most patients are treated in the community with antidepressant medication and some with psychotherapy or counselling.
Hospitalization may be necessary in cases with associated self-neglect or a significant risk of harm to self or others. A minority are treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), under a short-acting general anaesthetic.
The course of the disorder varies widely, from one episode lasting months to a lifelong disorder with recurrent major depressive episodes.
Depressed individuals have shorter life expectancies than those without depression, in part because of greater susceptibility to medical illnesses and suicide. Current and former patients may be stigmatized.
Psychological, psycho-social, hereditary, evolutionary and biological causes have been proposed.
Psychological treatments are based on theories of personality, interpersonal communication, and learning.
Most biological theories focus on the monoamine chemicals serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, which are naturally present in the brain and assist communication between nerve cells. Monoamines have been implicated in depression, and most antidepressants work to increase the active levels of at least one.
In clinical practice most of the patient with Depression not know their illness,they are mostly present with sleep disturbance,headache and multiple vague complain.
So proper history and evaluation require to rule out Depression.
WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT DEPRESSION?
The term "major depressive disorder" was selected by the American Psychiatric Association to designate this symptom cluster as a mood disorder in the 1980 version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) classification, and has become widely used since.
The general term depression is often used to denote the disorder, but as it can also be used in reference to other types of psychological depression, more precise terminology is preferred for the disorder in clinical and research use.
Major depression is a disabling condition which adversely affects a person's family, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health.
The diagnosis of major depressive disorder is based on the patient's self-reported experiences, behavior reported by relatives or friends, and a mental status exam.
There is no laboratory test for major depression, although physicians generally request tests for physical conditions that may cause similar symptoms.
The most common time of onset is between the ages of 30 and 40 years, with a later peak between 50 and 60 years. Major depression is reported about twice as frequently in women as in men, and women attempt suicide more often, although men are at higher risk for completing suicide.
Most patients are treated in the community with antidepressant medication and some with psychotherapy or counselling.
Hospitalization may be necessary in cases with associated self-neglect or a significant risk of harm to self or others. A minority are treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), under a short-acting general anaesthetic.
The course of the disorder varies widely, from one episode lasting months to a lifelong disorder with recurrent major depressive episodes.
Depressed individuals have shorter life expectancies than those without depression, in part because of greater susceptibility to medical illnesses and suicide. Current and former patients may be stigmatized.
Psychological, psycho-social, hereditary, evolutionary and biological causes have been proposed.
Psychological treatments are based on theories of personality, interpersonal communication, and learning.
Most biological theories focus on the monoamine chemicals serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, which are naturally present in the brain and assist communication between nerve cells. Monoamines have been implicated in depression, and most antidepressants work to increase the active levels of at least one.
In clinical practice most of the patient with Depression not know their illness,they are mostly present with sleep disturbance,headache and multiple vague complain.
So proper history and evaluation require to rule out Depression.
WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT DEPRESSION?
PSYCHIATRY
WHAT IS YOUR OPINION ABOUT PSYCHIATRY BRANCH?
TODAY WORLD IS PROGRESSING VERY FAST BUT STILL PEOPLE HAS LACK OF AWARENESS OF PSYCHIATRY.
STILL TODAY LOTS OF PEOPLE NOT ACCEPTING MENTAL ILLNESS AND
NOT APPROACHING PSYCHIATRIST.
PEOPLE FEEL SHAMENESS TO CONSULT PSYCHIATRIST
WHEN WIL THIS STIGMA OF OUR SOCIETY DISAPPEAR?
TODAY WORLD IS PROGRESSING VERY FAST BUT STILL PEOPLE HAS LACK OF AWARENESS OF PSYCHIATRY.
STILL TODAY LOTS OF PEOPLE NOT ACCEPTING MENTAL ILLNESS AND
NOT APPROACHING PSYCHIATRIST.
PEOPLE FEEL SHAMENESS TO CONSULT PSYCHIATRIST
WHEN WIL THIS STIGMA OF OUR SOCIETY DISAPPEAR?
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