Psychological basis
Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion.
Intimacy is a form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs.
Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is permanent.
The last and most common form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love.
All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. American psychologist Zick Rubin seeks to define love by psychometrics. His work states that three factors constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.
Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as "opposites attract." Over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds. In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.
Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another," and simple narcissism. In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling.
17 April 2010
CHEMICAL BASIS OF LOVE
Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst. Helen Fisher, a leading expert in the topic of love, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment.
Lust exposes people to others;
romantic attraction encourages people to focus their energy on mating; and
attachment involves tolerating the spouse (or indeed the child) long enough to rear a child into infancy.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months.
Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which act in a manner similar to amphetamines, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships.
Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have. Enzo Emanuele and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.
Lust exposes people to others;
romantic attraction encourages people to focus their energy on mating; and
attachment involves tolerating the spouse (or indeed the child) long enough to rear a child into infancy.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months.
Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which act in a manner similar to amphetamines, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships.
Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have. Enzo Emanuele and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.
PHOBIA
A phobia (from the Greek: φόβος, phóbos, meaning "fear" or "morbid fear") is an intense and persistent fear of certain situations, activities, things, animals, or people. The main symptom of this disorder is the excessive and unreasonable desire to avoid the feared stimulus. When the fear is beyond one's control, and if the fear is interfering with daily life, then a diagnosis under one of the anxiety disorders can be made.
This is caused by what are called, neutral, unconditioned, and conditioned stimuli, which trigger either conditioned or unconditioned responses. An example would be a person who was attacked by a dog (the unconditioned stimulus) would respond with an unconditioned response. When this happens, the unconditioned stimulus of them being attacked by the dog would become conditioned, and to this now conditioned stimulus, they would develop a conditioned response. If the occurrence had enough of an impact on this certain person then they would develop a fear of that dog, or in some cases, an irrational fear of all dogs.
Phobias are a common form of anxiety disorders. An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that between 8.7% and 18.1% of Americans suffer from phobias. Broken down by age and gender, the study found that phobias were the most common mental illness among women in all age groups and the second most common illness among men older than 25.
Phobias are not generally diagnosed if they are not particularly distressing to the patient and if they are not frequently encountered. If a phobia is defined as "impairing to the individual", then it will be treated after being measured in context by the degree of severity. A large percent of the American population is afraid of public speaking, which could range from mild uncomfortability, to an intense anxiety that inhibits all social involvement.
Phobias are generally caused by an event recorded by the amygdala and hippocampus and labeled as deadly or dangerous; thus whenever a specific situation is approached again the body reacts as if the event were happening repeatedly afterward. Treatment comes in some way or another as a replacing of the memory and reaction to the previous event perceived as deadly with something more realistic and based more rationally. In reality most phobias are irrational, in the sense that they are thought to be dangerous, but in reality are not threatening to survival in any way.
Some phobias are generated from the observation of a parent's or sibling's reaction. The observer then can take in the information and generate a fear of whatever they experienced.
This is caused by what are called, neutral, unconditioned, and conditioned stimuli, which trigger either conditioned or unconditioned responses. An example would be a person who was attacked by a dog (the unconditioned stimulus) would respond with an unconditioned response. When this happens, the unconditioned stimulus of them being attacked by the dog would become conditioned, and to this now conditioned stimulus, they would develop a conditioned response. If the occurrence had enough of an impact on this certain person then they would develop a fear of that dog, or in some cases, an irrational fear of all dogs.
Phobias are a common form of anxiety disorders. An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that between 8.7% and 18.1% of Americans suffer from phobias. Broken down by age and gender, the study found that phobias were the most common mental illness among women in all age groups and the second most common illness among men older than 25.
Phobias are not generally diagnosed if they are not particularly distressing to the patient and if they are not frequently encountered. If a phobia is defined as "impairing to the individual", then it will be treated after being measured in context by the degree of severity. A large percent of the American population is afraid of public speaking, which could range from mild uncomfortability, to an intense anxiety that inhibits all social involvement.
Phobias are generally caused by an event recorded by the amygdala and hippocampus and labeled as deadly or dangerous; thus whenever a specific situation is approached again the body reacts as if the event were happening repeatedly afterward. Treatment comes in some way or another as a replacing of the memory and reaction to the previous event perceived as deadly with something more realistic and based more rationally. In reality most phobias are irrational, in the sense that they are thought to be dangerous, but in reality are not threatening to survival in any way.
Some phobias are generated from the observation of a parent's or sibling's reaction. The observer then can take in the information and generate a fear of whatever they experienced.
ANIMAL PHOBIA
Animal phobias
Ailurophobia – fear/dislike of cats.
Animal phobia - fear of certain animals, a category of specific phobias.
Apiphobia – fear/dislike of bees (also known as Melissophobia).
Arachnophobia – fear/dislike of spiders.
Chiroptophobia – fear/dislike of bats.
Cynophobia – fear/dislike of dogs.
Entomophobia – fear/dislike of insects.
Equinophobia – fear/dislike of horses (also known as Hippophobia).
Herpetophobia - fear/dislike of reptiles.
Ichthyophobia – fear/dislike of fish.
Musophobia – fear/dislike of mice and/or rats.
Ophidiophobia – fear/dislike of snakes.
Ornithophobia – fear/dislike of birds.
Scoleciphobia – fear of worms.
Zoophobia – a generic term for animal phobias
Ailurophobia – fear/dislike of cats.
Animal phobia - fear of certain animals, a category of specific phobias.
Apiphobia – fear/dislike of bees (also known as Melissophobia).
Arachnophobia – fear/dislike of spiders.
Chiroptophobia – fear/dislike of bats.
Cynophobia – fear/dislike of dogs.
Entomophobia – fear/dislike of insects.
Equinophobia – fear/dislike of horses (also known as Hippophobia).
Herpetophobia - fear/dislike of reptiles.
Ichthyophobia – fear/dislike of fish.
Musophobia – fear/dislike of mice and/or rats.
Ophidiophobia – fear/dislike of snakes.
Ornithophobia – fear/dislike of birds.
Scoleciphobia – fear of worms.
Zoophobia – a generic term for animal phobias
LIST OF PHOBIA
Ablutophobia – fear of bathing, washing, or cleaning.
Acrophobia, Altophobia – fear of heights.
Agoraphobia, Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder – fear of places or events where escape is impossible or when help is unavailable.
Agraphobia – fear of sexual abuse.
Aichmophobia – fear of sharp or pointed objects (as a needle, knife or a pointing finger).
Algophobia – fear of pain.
Agyrophobia – fear of crossing roads.
Androphobia – fear of men.
Anthropophobia – fear of people or being in a company, a form of social phobia.
Anthophobia – fear of flowers.
Aquaphobia – fear of water.
Astraphobia, Astrapophobia, Brontophobia, Keraunophobia – fear of thunder, lightning and storms; especially common in young children.
Aviophobia, Aviatophobia – fear of flying.
Bacillophobia, Bacteriophobia, Microbiophobia – fear of microbes and bacteria.
Blood-injection-injury type phobia – a DSM-IV subtype of specific phobias
Chorophobia - fear of dancing.
Cibophobia, Sitophobia – aversion to food, synonymous to Anorexia nervosa.
Claustrophobia – fear of confined spaces.
Coulrophobia – fear of clowns (not restricted to evil clowns).
Decidophobia – fear of making decisions.
Dental phobia, Dentophobia, Odontophobia – fear of dentists and dental procedures
Dysmorphophobia, or body dysmorphic disorder – a phobic obsession with a real or imaginary body defect.
Emetophobia – fear of vomiting.
Ergasiophobia, Ergophobia – fear of work or functioning, or a surgeon's fear of operating.
Ergophobia – fear of work or functioning.
Erotophobia – fear of sexual love or sexual questions.
Erythrophobia – pathological blushing.
Gelotophobia - fear of being laughed at.
Gephyrophobia – fear of bridges.
Genophobia, Coitophobia – fear of sexual intercourse.
Gerascophobia – fear of growing old or ageing.
Gerontophobia – fear of growing old, or a hatred or fear of the elderly.
Glossophobia – fear of speaking in public or of trying to speak.
Gymnophobia – fear of nudity.
Gynophobia – fear of women.
Haptephobia – fear of being touched.
Heliophobia – fear of sunlight.
Hemophobia, Haemophobia – fear of blood.
Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia – fear of the number 666.
Hoplophobia – fear of weapons, specifically firearms (Generally a political term but the clinical phobia is also documented).
Ligyrophobia – fear of loud noises.
Lipophobia – fear/avoidance of fats in food.
Medication phobia - fear of medications
Megalophobia - fear of large/oversized objects.
Mysophobia – fear of germs, contamination or dirt.
Necrophobia – fear of death, the dead.
Neophobia, Cainophobia, Cainotophobia, Cenophobia, Centophobia, Kainolophobia, Kainophobia – fear of newness, novelty.
Nomophobia – fear of being out of mobile phone contact.
Nosophobia – fear of contracting a disease.
Nosocomephobia - fear of hospitals.
Nyctophobia, Achluophobia, Lygophobia, Scotophobia – fear of darkness.
Osmophobia, Olfactophobia – fear of smells.
Paraskavedekatriaphobia, Paraskevidekatriaphobia, Friggatriskaidekaphobia – fear of Friday the 13th.
Panphobia – fear of everything or constantly afraid without knowing what is causing it.
Phasmophobia - fear of ghosts, spectres or phantasms.
Phagophobia – fear of swallowing.
Pharmacophobia – same as medication phobia
Phobophobia – fear of having a phobia.
Phonophobia – fear of loud sounds.
Pyrophobia – fear of fire.
Radiophobia – fear of radioactivity or X-rays.
Sociophobia – fear of people or social situations
Scopophobia – fear of being looked at or stared at.
Somniphobia – fear of sleep.
Spectrophobia – fear of mirrors and one's own reflections.
Taphophobia – fear of the grave, or fear of being placed in a grave while still alive.
Technophobia – fear of technology.
Telephone phobia, fear or reluctance of making or taking phone calls.
Tetraphobia – fear of the number 4.
Tokophobia – fear of childbirth.
Tomophobia – fear or anxiety of surgeries/surgical operations.
Traumatophobia – a synonym for injury phobia, a fear of having an injury
Triskaidekaphobia, Terdekaphobia – fear of the number 13.
Trypanophobia, Belonephobia, Enetophobia – fear of needles or injections.
Workplace phobia – fear of the work place.
Xenophobia – fear of strangers, foreigners, or aliens.
Acrophobia, Altophobia – fear of heights.
Agoraphobia, Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder – fear of places or events where escape is impossible or when help is unavailable.
Agraphobia – fear of sexual abuse.
Aichmophobia – fear of sharp or pointed objects (as a needle, knife or a pointing finger).
Algophobia – fear of pain.
Agyrophobia – fear of crossing roads.
Androphobia – fear of men.
Anthropophobia – fear of people or being in a company, a form of social phobia.
Anthophobia – fear of flowers.
Aquaphobia – fear of water.
Astraphobia, Astrapophobia, Brontophobia, Keraunophobia – fear of thunder, lightning and storms; especially common in young children.
Aviophobia, Aviatophobia – fear of flying.
Bacillophobia, Bacteriophobia, Microbiophobia – fear of microbes and bacteria.
Blood-injection-injury type phobia – a DSM-IV subtype of specific phobias
Chorophobia - fear of dancing.
Cibophobia, Sitophobia – aversion to food, synonymous to Anorexia nervosa.
Claustrophobia – fear of confined spaces.
Coulrophobia – fear of clowns (not restricted to evil clowns).
Decidophobia – fear of making decisions.
Dental phobia, Dentophobia, Odontophobia – fear of dentists and dental procedures
Dysmorphophobia, or body dysmorphic disorder – a phobic obsession with a real or imaginary body defect.
Emetophobia – fear of vomiting.
Ergasiophobia, Ergophobia – fear of work or functioning, or a surgeon's fear of operating.
Ergophobia – fear of work or functioning.
Erotophobia – fear of sexual love or sexual questions.
Erythrophobia – pathological blushing.
Gelotophobia - fear of being laughed at.
Gephyrophobia – fear of bridges.
Genophobia, Coitophobia – fear of sexual intercourse.
Gerascophobia – fear of growing old or ageing.
Gerontophobia – fear of growing old, or a hatred or fear of the elderly.
Glossophobia – fear of speaking in public or of trying to speak.
Gymnophobia – fear of nudity.
Gynophobia – fear of women.
Haptephobia – fear of being touched.
Heliophobia – fear of sunlight.
Hemophobia, Haemophobia – fear of blood.
Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia – fear of the number 666.
Hoplophobia – fear of weapons, specifically firearms (Generally a political term but the clinical phobia is also documented).
Ligyrophobia – fear of loud noises.
Lipophobia – fear/avoidance of fats in food.
Medication phobia - fear of medications
Megalophobia - fear of large/oversized objects.
Mysophobia – fear of germs, contamination or dirt.
Necrophobia – fear of death, the dead.
Neophobia, Cainophobia, Cainotophobia, Cenophobia, Centophobia, Kainolophobia, Kainophobia – fear of newness, novelty.
Nomophobia – fear of being out of mobile phone contact.
Nosophobia – fear of contracting a disease.
Nosocomephobia - fear of hospitals.
Nyctophobia, Achluophobia, Lygophobia, Scotophobia – fear of darkness.
Osmophobia, Olfactophobia – fear of smells.
Paraskavedekatriaphobia, Paraskevidekatriaphobia, Friggatriskaidekaphobia – fear of Friday the 13th.
Panphobia – fear of everything or constantly afraid without knowing what is causing it.
Phasmophobia - fear of ghosts, spectres or phantasms.
Phagophobia – fear of swallowing.
Pharmacophobia – same as medication phobia
Phobophobia – fear of having a phobia.
Phonophobia – fear of loud sounds.
Pyrophobia – fear of fire.
Radiophobia – fear of radioactivity or X-rays.
Sociophobia – fear of people or social situations
Scopophobia – fear of being looked at or stared at.
Somniphobia – fear of sleep.
Spectrophobia – fear of mirrors and one's own reflections.
Taphophobia – fear of the grave, or fear of being placed in a grave while still alive.
Technophobia – fear of technology.
Telephone phobia, fear or reluctance of making or taking phone calls.
Tetraphobia – fear of the number 4.
Tokophobia – fear of childbirth.
Tomophobia – fear or anxiety of surgeries/surgical operations.
Traumatophobia – a synonym for injury phobia, a fear of having an injury
Triskaidekaphobia, Terdekaphobia – fear of the number 13.
Trypanophobia, Belonephobia, Enetophobia – fear of needles or injections.
Workplace phobia – fear of the work place.
Xenophobia – fear of strangers, foreigners, or aliens.
ANXIETY
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry. Anxiety is a generalized mood condition that can often occur without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which occurs in the presence of an observed threat. Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and avoidance, whereas anxiety is the result of threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable.
Another view is that anxiety is "a future-oriented mood state in which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events" suggesting that it is a distinction between future vs. present dangers that divides anxiety and fear. Anxiety is considered to be a normal reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for example at work or at school, by prompting one to cope with it. When anxiety becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.
Another view is that anxiety is "a future-oriented mood state in which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events" suggesting that it is a distinction between future vs. present dangers that divides anxiety and fear. Anxiety is considered to be a normal reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for example at work or at school, by prompting one to cope with it. When anxiety becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.
ROAD RAGE
Road rage is aggressive or angry behavior by a driver of an automobile or other motor vehicle. Such behavior might include rude gestures, verbal insults, deliberately driving in an unsafe or threatening manner, or making threats. Road rage can lead to altercations, assaults, and collisions which result in injuries and even deaths. It can be thought of as an extreme case of aggressive driving.
The term supposedly originated in the USA during the 1980s. The term did originate in the USA during the 1980s, specifically from Newscasters at KTLA a local television station in Los Angeles, California. The term originated in 1987-1988, wherefrom a rash of Freeway Shootings occurred on the 405, 110 and 10 Freeways in Los Angeles. These shooting sprees even spawned a response from the AAA Motorclub to its members on how to respond to drivers with RoadRage and/or Aggressive Manuevers and Gestures.
The term supposedly originated in the USA during the 1980s. The term did originate in the USA during the 1980s, specifically from Newscasters at KTLA a local television station in Los Angeles, California. The term originated in 1987-1988, wherefrom a rash of Freeway Shootings occurred on the 405, 110 and 10 Freeways in Los Angeles. These shooting sprees even spawned a response from the AAA Motorclub to its members on how to respond to drivers with RoadRage and/or Aggressive Manuevers and Gestures.
ASPERGER SYNDROME
Asperger syndrome is an autism spectrum disorder, and people with it therefore show significant difficulties in social interaction, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. It differs from other autism spectrum disorders by its relative preservation of linguistic and cognitive development. Although not required for diagnosis, physical clumsiness and atypical use of language are frequently reported.
Asperger syndrome is named for the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger who, in 1944, described children in his practice who lacked nonverbal communication skills, demonstrated limited empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Fifty years later, it was standardized as a diagnosis, but many questions remain about aspects of the disorder. For example, there is doubt about whether it is distinct from high-functioning autism (HFA); partly because of this, its prevalence is not firmly established. The diagnosis of Asperger's has been proposed to be eliminated, replaced by a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder on a severity scale.
The exact cause is unknown, although research supports the likelihood of a genetic basis; brain imaging techniques have not identified a clear common pathology. There is no single treatment, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The mainstay of management is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and physical clumsiness. Most individuals improve over time, but difficulties with communication, social adjustment and independent living continue into adulthood. Some researchers and people with Asperger's have advocated a shift in attitudes toward the view that it is a difference, rather than a disability that must be treated or cured.
Asperger syndrome is named for the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger who, in 1944, described children in his practice who lacked nonverbal communication skills, demonstrated limited empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Fifty years later, it was standardized as a diagnosis, but many questions remain about aspects of the disorder. For example, there is doubt about whether it is distinct from high-functioning autism (HFA); partly because of this, its prevalence is not firmly established. The diagnosis of Asperger's has been proposed to be eliminated, replaced by a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder on a severity scale.
The exact cause is unknown, although research supports the likelihood of a genetic basis; brain imaging techniques have not identified a clear common pathology. There is no single treatment, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The mainstay of management is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and physical clumsiness. Most individuals improve over time, but difficulties with communication, social adjustment and independent living continue into adulthood. Some researchers and people with Asperger's have advocated a shift in attitudes toward the view that it is a difference, rather than a disability that must be treated or cured.
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